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US DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BACKGROUND NOTES:  SUDAN

Official Name:  Republic of the Sudan

PROFILE
People

Nationality:  Noun and adjective-Sudanese (sing. and pl.).
Population (1989 est.):  25 million; 25% urban.  Annual growth rate
(1987 est.): 3%.  Ethnic groups:  Arab-African, black African.
Religions:  Islam, indigenous beliefs (southern Sudan), Christianity.
Language:  Arabic (official), English, tribal languages.  Education:
Years compulsory-9.  Attendance-50%.

Literacy-20%.  Health:  Infant mortality rate-112/1,000.  Life
expectancy-49 yrs.  Work force (6 million, 1982):  Agriculture-78%.
Industry and commerce-10%.  Government-6%.


Geography
Area:  2.5 million sq. km. (967,500 sq. mi.); almost one-third size of
continental US.  Cities:  Capital-Khartoum.  Other cities-Port Sudan,
Kassala, Kosti, Juba (capital of southern region).  No current
accurate population statistics available.  Terrain:  Generally flat with
mountains in east and west.  Climate:  Desert in north to tropical in
south.


Government
Type:  Military dictatorship.  Independence:  January 1, 1956.
Constitution: 1985 provisional constitution amended, now suspended.

Branches:  Executive authority is shared by the 15-member
Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) and the cabinet.  The
Chairman of the RCC is concurrently chief of state (president) and
prime minister.  Judicial-Supreme Court, attorney general, civil,
shari'a (Islamic), special revolutionary courts, and tribal courts;
special investigative commissions.

Administrative subdivisions:  5 northern regions, 3 southern regions;
each region, 2 or more provinces.

Political parties:  All political parties banned following June 30, 1989,
military coup.
Central government budget (1990 est.):  $1.5 billion.

Defense (1990  est.):  30% of GNP.

Flag:  Horizontal red, white, and black stripes with green triangle on
staff side.


Economy
GDP (1988 est.):  $9 billion. GDP Annual growth rate (1990 est.):
0.0%.

Per capita income GDP (1990 est.):  $300.  Avg. annual inflation rate
(1989): 75%, (1990 est.) 45%.

Natural resources:  Modest reserves of oil, iron ore, copper, chrome,
and other industrial metals.

Agriculture (40% of GNP):  Products-cotton, peanuts, sorghum,
sesame seeds, gum arabic, sugar cane, livestock.
Industry:  Types-textiles, cement, cotton ginning, edible oil and sugar
refining.

Trade (1988 est.):  Exports-$550 million:  cotton, sorghum, peanuts,
gum arabic, sesame seeds.  Major markets-Egypt, Persian Gulf
states, Saudi Arabia.  Imports-$1 billion:  oil and petroleum products,
wheat, agricultural inputs and machinery, industrial inputs and
manufactured goods.  Major suppliers-Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Gulf
states.

Official exchange rates:  4.5 Sudanese pounds (SL)=US$1; official
commercial rate is SL 12=US$1.  Fiscal year:  July 1-June 30.


Membership in  International Organizations

UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, Arab League,
Organization of African Unity (OAU), Organization of the Islamic
Conference (OIC), Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 77.


PEOPLE
In Sudan's 1981 census, the population was calculated at 21 million.
Current estimates range to 25 million.  The population of metropolitan
Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is
growing, and ranges from 3-4 million, including over 1 million
displaced persons from the southern war zone.

Sudan has two distinct cultures-Arab and black African-and effective
collaboration between them is a major problem.

The five northern regions cover most of Sudan and include most
urban centers.  Most of the estimated 18 million Sudanese who live
in this area are Arabic-speaking Muslims.  Among these are several
distinct tribal groups; the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a
camel-raising people; the Jaalin and Shaigiyya groups of settled
tribes living along rivers; the semi-nomadic Baggara of Kordofan and
Darfur; the Hamitic Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the
northern Nile area, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara
River; and the Negroid Nuba of southern Kordofan and Fur in the
western reaches of the country.

The southern region has a population of about 4-6 million and a
predominantly rural, subsistence economy.  Here the Sudanese
practice mainly indigenous, traditional beliefs, although Christian
missionaries have converted some.  The south also contains many
tribal groups and uses many more languages than the north.  The
Dinka (pop. 1 million or more) is the largest of the many black
African tribes in Sudan.  Along with the Shilluk and the Nuer, they are
among the Nilotic tribes.  The Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are "Sudanic"
tribes in the west, and the Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme
south, extending into Uganda.


HISTORY
Sudan was a collection of small, independent states from the
beginning of the Christian era until 1820-21, when Egypt conquered
and unified the northern portion of the country.  Although Egypt
claimed all of present Sudan during most of the 19th century, it was
unable to establish effective control of southern Sudan, which
remained an area of fragmented tribes subject to frequent attacks by
slave raiders.

In 1881, a religious leader named Muhammad Ahmed ibn Abdalla
proclaimed himself the Mahdi, or "expected one," and began to unify
tribes in western and central Sudan.  His followers took on the name
"Ansars," which they continue to use today. Taking advantage of
conditions resulting from Ottoman-Egyptian exploitation and
mal-administration, the Mahdi led a nationalist revolt culminating in
the fall of Khartoum in 1885.  The Mahdi died shortly thereafter, but
his state survived until overwhelmed by an Anglo-Egyptian force
under Kitchener in 1898.  Sudan was proclaimed a condominium in
1899 under British-Egyptian administration.  While maintaining the
appearance of joint administration, the British formulated policies,
and supplied most of the top administrators.


Independence
In February 1953, the United Kingdom and Egypt concluded an
agreement providing for Sudanese self-government and
self-determination.  The transitional period toward independence
began with the inauguration of the first parliament in 1954.  With the
consent of the British and Egyptian governments, Sudan achieved
independence on January 1, 1956, under a provisional constitution.
The United States was among the first foreign powers to recognize
the new state.

The National Unionist Party (NUP), under Prime Minister Ismail
el-Azhari, dominated the first cabinet, which was soon replaced by
a coalition of conservative political forces.  In 1958, following a period
of economic difficulties and political maneuvering that paralyzed
public administration, Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Ibrahim Abboud
overthrew the parliamentary regime in a bloodless coup.

Gen. Abboud did not carry out his promises to return Sudan to
civilian government, however, and popular resentment against army
rule led to a wave of riots and strikes in late October 1964 that
forced the military to relinquish power.

The Abboud regime was followed by a provisional civilian
government until parliamentary elections in April 1965 led to a
coalition government of the Umma and National Unionist Parties
under Prime Minister Muhammad Ahmad Mahjoub.  Between 1966
and 1969, Sudan had a series of governments that proved unable
either to agree on a permanent constitution or to cope with problems
of factionalism, economic stagnation, and ethnic dissidence.

Dissatisfaction culminated in a second military coup on May 25,
1969.  The coup leader, Col. Gaafar Muhhamad Nimeiri, became
prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and
outlawed all political parties.

Disputes between Marxist and non-Marxist elements within the ruling
military coalition resulted in a briefly successful coup in July 1971, led
by the Sudanese Communist Party.  Several days later,
anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiri to power.

In 1976, the Ansars mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup
attempt.  In July 1977, President Nimeiri met with Ansar leader Sadiq
al-Mahdi, opening the way for reconciliation.  Hundreds of political
prisoners were released, and in August a general amnesty was
announced for all opponents of Nimeiri's government.

In September 1983, as part of an Islamicization campaign, President
Nimeiri announced his decision to incorporate traditional Islamic
punishments drawn from the Shari'a (Islamic law) into the penal
code.  This was controversial even among Muslim groups.  After
questioning Nimeiri's credentials to Islamicize Sudanese society,
Ansar leader Sadiq al-Mahdi was placed under house arrest.  On
April 26, 1984, President Nimeiri declared a state of emergency, in
part to ensure that Shari'a was applied more broadly.  Most
constitutionally guaranteed rights were suspended.  In the North,
emergency courts later known as "decisive justice courts," were
established, with summary jurisdiction over criminal cases.
Amputations for theft and public lashings for alcohol possession
were common during the state of emergency.  Southerners and
other non-Muslims living in the north were also subjected to these
punishments.

In September 1984, President Nimeiri announced the end of the state
of emergency and dismantled the emergency courts but soon
promulgated a new judiciary act which continued many of the
practices of the emergency courts.  Despite Nimeiri's public
assurances that the rights of non-Muslims would be respected,
southerners and other non-Muslims remained deeply suspicious.

Early 1985 saw serious shortages of fuel and bread in Khartoum, a
growing insurgency in the south, drought and famine, and an
increasingly difficult refugee burden.  In early April, during Nimeiri's
absence from the country, massive demonstrations, first triggered by
price increases on bread and other staples, broke out in Khartoum.

On April 6, 1985, senior military officers led by Gen. Suwar el Dahab
mounted a coup.  Among the first acts of the new government was
to suspend the 1983 constitution and disband Nimeiri's Sudan
Socialist Union.  A 15-member transitional military council was
named, chaired by Gen. Suwar el Dahab.  In consultation with an
informal conference of political parties, unions, and professional
organizations known as the "Gathering," the council appointed an
interim civilian cabinet, headed by Prime Minister Dr. El Gizouli
Defalla.
Elections were held in April 1986, and the transitional military council
turned over power to a civilian government as promised.  The
government, headed by Prime Minister Sadiq al Mahdi of the Umma
Party, consisted of a coalition of the Umma, DUP, and several
southern parties.  This coalition dissolved and reformed several times
over the next few years, with Sadiq al Mahdi and his Umma party
always in a central role.

During this period, the economy continued to deteriorate.  When
prices of basic goods were increased in 1988, riots ensued, and the
price increases were cancelled.  The civil war in the south was
particularly divisive (see "Civil Strife" below).  When Sadiq refused to
approve a peace plan reached by the DUP and the Sudanese
Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) in November 1988, the DUP left the
government.  The new government consisted essentially of the
Umma and the Islamic fundamentalist National Islamic Front (NIF).

    In February 1989, the army presented Sadiq with an ultimatum:
he could move toward peace or be thrown out.  He formed a new
government with the DUP and approved the SPLA/DUP agreement.
On June 30, 1989, however, military officers under then-Colonel
Omar al Bashir replaced the government with the Revolutionary
Command Council for National Salvation (RCC), a junta comprised
of 15 military officers assisted by a civilian cabinet.  General al Bashir
is president and chief of state, prime minister and chief of the armed
forces.


Civil Strife
In 1955, southern resentment of northern domination culminated in
a mutiny among southern troops in Equatoria Province.  For the next
17 years, the southern region experienced civil strife, and various
southern leaders agitated for regional autonomy or outright
secession.

This chronic state of insurgency against the central government was
suspended early in 1972 after the signing of the Addis Ababa
accords granting southern Sudan wide regional autonomy on internal
matters, but a 1983 decree by President Nimeiri dividing the south
into three regions revived southern opposition and militant
insurgency.  After the 1985 coup, the new government rescinded this
decree and made other significant overtures aimed at reconciling
north and south.  In May 1986, the Sadiq al Mahdi government
began peace negotiations with the SPLA, led by Col. John Garang
de Mabior  In that year the SPLA and a number of Sudanese political
parties met in Ethiopia and agreed to the "Koka Dam" declaration,
which called for abolishing Islamic law and convening a constitutional
conference.  In 1988, the SPLA and the DUP agreed on a peace plan
calling for the abolition of military pacts with Egypt and Libya,
freezing of Islamic laws, an end to the state of emergency, and a
cease-fire.  A constitutional conference would then be convened.

Following an ultimatum from the armed forces in February 1989, the
Sadiq government approved this peace plan and engaged in several
rounds of talks with the SPLA.  A constitutional conference was
tentatively planned for September 1989.  The military government
which took over on June 30, 1989, however, repudiated the
DUP-SPLA agreement and stated it wished to negotiate with the
SPLA without preconditions.  Negotiating sessions in August and
December 1989 brought little progress.

    The SPLA is in control of large areas of Equatoria, Bahr al Ghazal
and Upper Nile provinces and also operates in the southern portions
of Darfur, Kordofan and Blue Nile provinces.  The government
controls a number of the major southern towns and cities, including
Juba, Wau, and Malakal.  An informal cease-fire in May broke down
in October 1989, and fighting has continued since then.

The ongoing civil war has displaced over 2 million southerners.
Some fled into southern cities, such as Juba; others trekked as far
north as Khartoum and even on into Ethiopia.  These people were
unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and
malnutrition and starvation became widespread.

Following an international outcry, the Sadiq al Mahdi government in
March 1989 agreed with the UN and donor nations (including the
US) on a plan called Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), under which
some 100,000 tons of food was moved into both government and
SPLA-held areas in southern Sudan, and widespread starvation was
averted.  OLS was suspended when the informal cease-fire broke
down in late 1989.  Following prolonged negotiations, Phase II of
OLS to cover 1990 was approved by both the government and the
SPLA in March of 1990.  In 1991, Sudan faces a food shortage
across the entire country because of two consecutive years of
drought; 7-9 million people are believed to be at risk, and over 1
million tons of grain are needed.  The US, the UN, and other donors
are attempting to mount a coordinated international relief effort in
both northern and southern Sudan to meet this need.


GOVERNMENT
Since 1983 Sudan has been divided into five regions in the north and
three in the south, each headed by a governor.  Since the 1985
coup, regional assemblies have been suspended.  Each region is
now under the control of a military governor.  All regions have limited
budgetary powers and depend on the central government for
economic support.  Khartoum province, comprising the capital and
outlying districts, is administered by a special commissioner.

 Principal Government Officials
President, Prime Minister, and Chairman of the Revolutionary
Command Council-Lt. Gen. Omar Hassan al Bashir
Deputy Prime Minister-Maj. Gen. Al Zubeir Muhammad Salih
Foreign Affairs-Ali Sahloul
Ambassador to the United States-Abdalla Ahmed Abdalla
Ambassador to the UN-Maj. Gen. (ret.) Joseph Lagu


ECONOMY
Sudan's primary resources are agricultural.  Although the country is
trying to diversify its cash crops, cotton accounts for nearly 50% of
export earnings.  Another large export crop is gum arabic, used in
pharmaceuticals, food preparation, and printing, with Sudan
producing four-fifths of the world's supply.  Grain sorghum (dura) is
the principal food crop, and wheat is grown for domestic
consumption.  Other crops such as sesame seeds and peanuts are
cultivated for domestic consumption and increasingly for export.
Livestock production has vast potential, and many animals,
particularly camels and sheep, are exported to Egypt, Saudi Arabia,
and other Arab countries.

The inadequate transportation system and the high cost of hauling
agricultural products over great distances are major hindrances to
economic development.  Sudan's only paved highways link
Khartoum to Port Sudan and the capital to Kosti and the White Nile.
Completed in mid-1980, the Khartoum-Port Sudan road has greatly
increased commerce between these cities.  Southern transportation
is vulnerable to bad weather.  Programs are underway to improve
roads in southern and western Sudan.

At present, the country's transportation facilities consist of one
4,800-kilometer (2,784-mi.), single-track railroad with a feeder line,
supplemented by river steamers, Sudan Airways, and about 1,900
km. (1,200 mi.) of paved or gravel roads.

Sudan has made large investments in growing cotton under various
irrigation and pump plans, particularly the Gezira scheme, south of
Khartoum between the White and Blue Niles.  Rain-fed agriculture,
primarily millet, sesame seeds, peanuts, and short-staple cotton, has
had uneven success; there is progress in developing the rain-fed
areas for mechanized agriculture.  These lands are promising,
provided the problems of transportation and irrigation to supplement
rainfall can be resolved.

Sudan's limited industrial development consists principally of
agricultural processing and various light industries located at
Khartoum North.  Although Sudan is reputed to have great mineral
resources, exploration has been quite limited, and the country's real
potential is unknown.  Small quantities of asbestos, chromium, and
mica are exploited commercially.  Extensive petroleum exploration
began in the mid-1970s and might eventually produce all of Sudan's
needs.  Significant finds were made in the Upper Nile region, but the
ongoing civil war in that area has forced suspension of exploration
and development activity there.

Sudan has an installed electrical generating capacity of 300
megawatts (MW), of which 180 MW is hydroelectric and the rest,
thermal.  More than 70% of the hydropower comes from the
Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile grid.  Various projects are underway
for expanding Roseires power station and for developing thermal and
other sources of energy.

The United States, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, and other Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting
Countries  (OAPEC) nations traditionally have supplied most of
Sudan's economic assistance.  Sudan's role as an economic link
between Arab and African countries is demonstrated by the location
in Khartoum of the Arab Bank for African Economic Development.
The World Bank has been the largest source of development loans.
Current investment by US companies, largely in oil exploration,
exceeds $1 billion.

Sudan will require extraordinary levels of program assistance and
debt relief to manage a foreign debt exceeding $13 billion, more than
the country's entire annual GDP.  Since the late 1970s, the IMF,
World Bank, and key donors have worked closely to promote
reforms to counter the effect of inefficient economic policies and
practices.  By mid-1984 a combination of factors-including drought,
inflation, and confused application of Islamic law-reduced donor
disbursements, and capital flight led to a serious foreign-exchange
crisis and increasing shortages of imported inputs and commodities.

The government fell out of compliance with the IMF standby program
and accumulated substantial arrearages on repurchase obligations
to the IMF.  A     4-year economic reform plan was announced by
the Sadiq government in 1988 but was not pursued.  The
government of General Omar al Bashir announced its own economic
reform plan in 1989 and began implementing a 3-year economic
restructuring program on July 1, 1990, designed to reduce the public
sector deficit, end subsidies, privatize state enterprises, and
encourage new foreign and domestic investment.  It appears unlikely,
however, that the IMF, the World Bank and the donor nations will find
these steps sufficient to embark on a coordinated program for
Sudan.  Sudan remains the world's largest debtor to the IMF, with
accumulated arrears of over $1.3 billion.

Sudan continues to suffer from a severe shortage of foreign
exchange, as imports exceed exports by more than two to one.
Exports are largely stagnant.  The small industrial sector remains in
the doldrums, and Sudan's inadequate and declining infrastructure
inhibits economic recovery.  Foreign exchange rate policies
discourage remittances from Sudanese working abroad.


DEFENSE
The Sudanese People's Armed Forces is a 60,000-member army
supported by a small air force and navy.  It is a defensive force,
having the additional duty of maintaining internal security.  Some
rebels currently fighting in the South are former army members.
Sudan's military services are hampered by limited and outdated
equipment.  In the 1980's, the US worked  with the Sudanese
government to upgrade equipment with special emphasis on airlift
capacity and logistics.  All US military assistance was terminated
following the military coup of    June 30, 1989.  Sudan has most
recently received military assistance from Iraq, China, and Libya.


FOREIGN RELATIONS
Sudan in recent years has tried to steer a non-aligned course,
courting western aid and seeking rapprochement with Arab states,
while maintaining cooperative ties with Libya.
Solidarity with other Arab countries has been a feature of Sudan's
foreign policy.  When the Arab-Israeli war began in June 1967, Sudan
declared war on Israel.  However, in the early and mid-1970s, Sudan
gradually shifted its stance and was supportive of the Camp David
process.
Relations between Sudan and Libya deteriorated in the early 1970s
and reached a low in October 1981, when Libyan leader  began a
policy of cross-border raids into western Sudan.  After the 1985
coup, the military government resumed diplomatic relations with
Libya, as part of a policy of improving relations with neighboring and
Arab states.  In early 1990, Libya and Sudan announced that they
would seek "unity."  It is not clear how or when this unity will be
implemented.


US-SUDANESE RELATIONS
Sudan broke diplomatic ties with the United States in June 1967,
following the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli war.  Relations improved
after July 1971, when the Sudanese Communist Party attempted to
overthrow President Nimeiri, and Nimeiri suspected Soviet
involvement.  US assistance for resettlement of refugees following the
February 1972 peace settlement in the south added further impetus
to the improvement of relations.  Diplomatic ties were restored on
June 25, 1972.

On March 1, 1973, Palestinian terrorists of the "Black September"
organization murdered US Ambassador Cleo A. Noel and Deputy
Chief of Mission Curtis G. Moore.  Sudanese officials arrested the
terrorists and tried and convicted them on murder charges.  In June
1974, however, the Sudanese government released them to the
custody of the Egyptian government.  The US ambassador to Sudan
was withdrawn in protest.  Although the US Ambassador returned to
Khartoum in November, relations with Sudan remained static until
late 1975 and early 1976, when President Nimeiri mediated the
release of 10 American hostages being held by Eritrean insurgents
in rebel strongholds in northern Ethiopia.  In 1976, the United States
decided to resume economic assistance to Sudan.
In late 1985, there was a reduction in staff at the American embassy
in Khartoum because of the presence in Khartoum of a large
contingent of Libyan terrorists.  In April 1986, relations with Sudan
deteriorated when the United States bombed Tripoli.  A US embassy
employee was shot on April 16, 1986.  Immediately following this
incident, all non-essential personnel and all dependents left for 6
months.
US interests in Sudan center around peace and relief.  The US has
worked closely with the governments of both Sadiq al Mahdi and
General Omar al- Bashir to see that emergency relief assistance is
provided to those displaced by the ongoing civil war.  Sudan's
position during the Iraq/Kuwait crisis strained relations with the
United States.  Sudan stated that Iraq should not have invaded
Kuwait, but it  was equally critical of the presence of Western forces
on Islamic holy lands.


Principal US Officials
Ambassador-James R. Cheek
Deputy Chief of Mission-Joseph P. O'Neill
USAID Director-Frederick Machmer
Public Affairs Officer-Mary Jeffers
The US Embassy in Sudan is located at Shari'a Ali Abdul Latif, PO
Box 699, Khartoum (tel. 74700, 74611).  Hours are 7 am-3 pm
Sunday through Thursday.   US Marine security guards at the
embassy can be contacted at any time in an emergency.


Travel Notes
Customs:  Visas and yellow fever immunizations are required.  Health
requirements change; check latest information.  Travelers must
complete a currency declaration listing all currency and other
valuables in their possession.  Money should be declared upon entry
and exchanged only at official exchange offices or banks.  Keep all
receipts.  Permits are required for photography.

Climate and clothing:  Washable, lightweight fabrics, suitable for a
desert climate, and conservative styles are recommended.
Dry-cleaning facilities are limited in Khartoum and unavailable
elsewhere.

Health:  Facilities are limited.  Water is not potable and should be
purified before drinking.  Food should  be well-cooked.  Cholera,
typhoid, tetanus, and polio immunizations, gamma globulin shots,
and Aralen tablets are recommended.

Telecommunications:  Limited international telephone and telegraph
service is available in Khartoum and Port Sudan.  There is no
international direct dial service to Sudan.  Sudan is seven time zones
ahead of Eastern Standard Time.

Transportation:  Sudan is connected by international airlines with
Europe, Saudi Arabia, and other countries in Africa.  Bookings
should be made in advance.  Domestic service is available for flights
within Sudan.  Travel by road or train outside Khartoum is limited.
Taxis are available in Khartoum, Port Sudan, and Juba.  Visitors
require government permission for all travel outside of the Khartoum
area.

National holidays:  Sudanese government offices are open
Saturday-Thursday.   The US Embassy is also closed on holidays.
Travelers should check ahead for holiday  schedule.


Published by the United States Department of State --  Bureau of
Public Affairs  -- Office of  Public Communication --  Editorial Division
--  Washington, DC -- March  1991 -- Editor:  Peter  A. Knecht
Department of State Publication  8022 -- Background Notes Series
-- This material is in the public domain and may  be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC  20402.